Best Water Softener for Tampa, FL — 15 Things to Know BEFORE You Buy!

Written by Craig "The Water Guy" Phillips

1. The Local Water Problem in Tampa, FL

Every morning, 400,000 Tampa homeowners turn on their faucets and receive water that's systematically damaging their homes. The culprit isn't visible contamination or a treatment plant failure — it's Tampa's 7.2 grains per gallon (GPG) water hardness, a mineral concentration that places the city firmly in the "hard water" classification.

To understand what 7.2 GPG means, think of your home's plumbing like a bank account where mineral deposits are compound interest working against you. Every gallon of Tampa water contains 7.2 grains of dissolved calcium and magnesium — roughly equivalent to a small pinch of salt in mineral content. While that sounds minimal, a typical Tampa household uses 300 gallons daily, meaning 2,160 grains of hardness minerals flow through your pipes, water heater, and appliances every single day.

Tampa's water originates from the Hillsborough River and several regional wellfields tapping the Floridan Aquifer. The limestone geology that defines central Florida is the same geological formation responsible for Tampa's hard water — calcium carbonate and magnesium deposits leach naturally into the groundwater as it moves through underground rock formations. This isn't a treatment problem that the city can solve; it's a geological reality that Tampa homeowners must address at the point of use.

For Tampa families, 7.2 GPG hardness creates measurable financial consequences. Water heaters lose 10-15% efficiency within the first year of operation, costing an additional $200-400 annually in energy bills. Appliances fail 2-3 years earlier than their rated lifespans. Soap and detergent consumption doubles because calcium ions prevent proper lathering, adding $300-500 yearly to household expenses.

The cumulative "hard water tax" for a Tampa household exceeds $1,200 annually when energy loss, soap waste, and accelerated appliance replacement are combined. More critically, Tampa's hard water compounds other infrastructure challenges — the presence of chlorine, sediment, and iron in the municipal supply creates layered problems that affect every water-using system in your home.

2. What 7.2 GPG Does to Your Home

Tampa's 7.2 GPG hardness triggers a specific chain of mineral crystallization that begins the moment water enters your home's plumbing system. When calcium and magnesium-rich water is heated or experiences pressure changes, dissolved minerals precipitate out of solution and bond to metal surfaces, forming calcium carbonate scale.

Inside your water heater, 7.2 GPG hardness creates scale deposits on heating elements at a rate of approximately 0.5-0.8 inches annually. This scale acts as insulation, forcing your water heater to work 12-18% harder to achieve the same temperature. A standard 40-gallon electric water heater in Tampa typically shows measurable efficiency loss within 8-10 months of installation. Gas units fare slightly better due to higher heat transfer rates, but still experience 8-12% efficiency reduction in the first year.

Tampa's older neighborhoods, particularly areas built before 1980, contain galvanized steel pipes that are especially vulnerable to scale accumulation. At 7.2 GPG, these pipes develop measurable diameter reduction within 5-7 years, creating pressure drops and flow restrictions. Copper pipes, more common in newer Tampa construction, resist corrosion better but still accumulate scale in areas where water velocity is low — particularly in branch lines serving bathrooms and laundry rooms.

Appliance manufacturers specifically recognize Tampa's hardness level as problematic. Dishwashers operating with 7.2 GPG water typically require descaling every 6-8 months to maintain spray arm function and prevent white film on dishes. Washing machines develop mineral buildup in pump assemblies and control valves, leading to premature failure of electronic components. Most significantly, tankless water heaters — increasingly popular in Tampa's new construction — often void manufacturer warranties when operated above 7 GPG without a water softener.

The soap and detergent impact of Tampa's 7.2 GPG hardness is chemically straightforward but financially significant. Calcium and magnesium ions react with soap molecules to form insoluble precipitates instead of cleansing lather. Tampa households typically use 2.5-3 times more laundry detergent, dish soap, and shampoo compared to soft-water cities. For a family of four, this translates to approximately $35-45 monthly in additional soap and detergent costs.

Personal care effects become noticeable at Tampa's hardness level. Calcium ions bind to skin and hair proteins, creating a dry, tight feeling after showering that many residents attribute to Florida's climate rather than water quality. Hair becomes brittle and difficult to manage as mineral deposits coat hair shafts and interfere with conditioning products. Soap scum accumulates rapidly on shower doors and tile surfaces, requiring aggressive cleaning products that can damage fixtures over time.

Tampa's annual "hard water tax" for a typical household breaks down to approximately $450 in additional energy costs, $400-500 in soap and detergent waste, $300-400 in extra cleaning products and damage, and $200-300 in accelerated appliance depreciation — totaling $1,350-1,650 yearly in hard water-related expenses.

3. Tampa's Specific Contaminant Profile

Beyond the 7.2 GPG hardness baseline, Tampa residents are also contending with chlorine, sediment, and iron — each of which interacts with water hardness in its own way. Understanding these compounds is essential because they affect both daily water quality and the long-term performance of any treatment system.

Chlorine in Tampa's Water Supply

Tampa's water treatment facilities add chlorine as the primary disinfectant, typically maintaining 1.0-2.5 mg/L throughout the distribution system. Chlorine enters Tampa's water at the treatment plant as sodium hypochlorite or gaseous chlorine, designed to prevent bacterial growth in the miles of pipes between treatment and your home. The geological source — surface water from the Hillsborough River combined with groundwater — requires consistent disinfection due to organic content and potential contamination sources.

At Tampa's 7.2 GPG hardness level, chlorine interactions become more complex. Scale deposits inside pipes provide surface area where chlorine can form more stable compounds, leading to stronger taste and odor in areas with heavy mineral buildup. Residents in older Tampa neighborhoods often report stronger chlorine taste, particularly from hot water, as heated hard water accelerates both scale formation and chlorine reactions.

Tampa residents typically notice chlorine as a "swimming pool" taste and odor, strongest when water sits in pipes overnight or during low-usage periods. The EPA maximum allowable chlorine level is 4.0 mg/L, and Tampa's levels consistently remain well below this threshold. However, chlorine degrades rubber gaskets, O-rings, and seals throughout your plumbing system — damage that's accelerated when combined with hard water scale that creates stress points and irregular surfaces.

A standard salt-based water softener like the SoftPro Elite HE does not remove chlorine — it addresses hardness minerals only. Tampa homeowners concerned about chlorine taste, odor, or plumbing component degradation should consider an activated carbon whole-house filter in addition to water softening.

Sediment and Turbidity Issues

Tampa's water distribution system occasionally experiences sediment issues, particularly following main breaks, system maintenance, or heavy rainfall events that affect the Hillsborough River source water. Sediment in Tampa typically consists of sand, silt, rust particles from aging pipes, and occasionally organic matter from surface water treatment processes.

The interaction between sediment and Tampa's 7.2 GPG hardness creates compounded problems. Suspended particles provide nucleation sites where calcium and magnesium can crystallize, creating larger, more abrasive scale deposits. These hybrid particles are particularly damaging to appliance components like washing machine pumps, dishwasher spray arms, and water heater dip tubes.

Tampa residents typically notice sediment as cloudy water immediately after turning on faucets, particularly following periods of low usage. Red or brown discoloration usually indicates iron oxide particles, while white or gray cloudiness suggests calcium carbonate particles or air entrainment. The EPA secondary standard for turbidity is 4 NTU (nephelometric turbidity units), and Tampa's treated water consistently meets this standard, though individual homes may experience higher levels due to internal plumbing conditions.

The SoftPro Elite HE includes a self-cleaning sediment pre-filter specifically designed to capture particulate matter before it reaches the ion exchange resin. This feature is particularly valuable for Tampa installations, where both sediment and hardness are present simultaneously.

Iron Content and Staining

Iron in Tampa's water supply typically ranges from 0.1-0.4 mg/L, originating from both natural geological sources in the Floridan Aquifer and corrosion of aging distribution pipes. Tampa's iron is primarily ferrous iron — dissolved, colorless, and tasteless until it contacts oxygen and oxidizes into visible ferric iron.

Tampa's 7.2 GPG hardness significantly affects iron behavior. Calcium and magnesium deposits provide surfaces where ferrous iron oxidizes more rapidly, creating orange and red staining that's much more persistent than iron staining in soft water. The combination creates layered stains — calcium carbonate base layer with iron oxide on top — that resist standard cleaning products.

Tampa residents typically first notice iron as orange or red staining on toilet bowls, shower floors, and laundry. White clothing may develop yellow or orange discoloration that becomes permanent after multiple wash cycles. Dishwashers often show reddish-brown staining on interior surfaces, and ice makers may produce discolored ice cubes.

The EPA secondary maximum contaminant level for iron is 0.3 mg/L — a aesthetic standard based on taste, odor, and staining rather than health effects. Tampa's iron levels are typically at or slightly above this threshold, enough to cause noticeable staining but not health concerns.

Standard water softeners can handle iron levels up to approximately 3-5 mg/L, but performance degrades as iron concentration increases. The SoftPro Elite HE is designed to handle Tampa's typical iron levels effectively, though homes with iron exceeding 0.5 mg/L may benefit from an iron-specific pre-filter to prevent resin fouling and extend system life.

4. Why Most Tampa Homeowners Pick the Wrong Softener

After 15 years covering water treatment across Florida, I've seen Tampa homeowners make the same four costly mistakes when choosing water softeners. These errors aren't obvious until months or years later, when the undersized or inappropriate system fails to handle Tampa's specific combination of 7.2 GPG hardness, chlorine, sediment, and iron.

Mistake 1 — Buying on Price Alone

Tampa's 7.2 GPG hardness demands continuous, heavy-duty ion exchange capacity that budget softeners simply cannot provide. A 24,000-grain unit that might work adequately in a soft-water city will exhaust its resin capacity in 2-3 days serving a Tampa household. When resin exhausts, hard water breaks through untreated, defeating the entire purpose of the system.

I've documented Tampa installations where homeowners purchased $400-600 "softener systems" that required regeneration every other day just to keep up with 7.2 GPG demand. The salt consumption, water waste, and constant cycling quickly made these units more expensive to operate than properly sized systems. Within 18 months, most required replacement with appropriate capacity units.

Mistake 2 — Confusing Softeners with Filters

Water softeners use ion exchange resin to remove calcium and magnesium ions — period. They do not reliably remove chlorine, sediment, or iron beyond trace levels. Tampa residents with both hard water and the city's chlorine, sediment, and iron issues need a multi-stage approach, not a single "miracle" unit.

I regularly encounter Tampa homeowners who purchased expensive "combination" units promising to solve all water problems simultaneously. These systems typically perform softening poorly and filtration poorly, rather than excelling at either function. The most effective approach pairs a dedicated high-capacity softener with specific filtration for targeted contaminants.

Mistake 3 — Ignoring Grain Capacity Math

Proper softener sizing for Tampa requires precise calculation based on the city's exact 7.2 GPG hardness level. The formula is straightforward:

[Household members] × 75 gallons/day × 7.2 GPG = daily grain demand

For a 4-person Tampa household:
4 people × 75 gallons × 7.2 GPG = 2,160 grains daily
Weekly demand: 2,160 × 7 = 15,120 grains
With 20% buffer for high-usage days: 18,144 grains

This calculation shows that Tampa households need minimum 32,000-grain capacity, with 48,000 grains optimal for 5-7 day regeneration cycles. Systems smaller than 32,000 grains will regenerate every 2-3 days, wasting salt and water while providing inconsistent performance.

Mistake 4 — Overlooking Salt Efficiency

At Tampa's 7.2 GPG hardness level, softeners regenerate 15-20 times annually — significantly more often than installations in soft-water regions. An inefficient unit using 15-20 pounds of salt per regeneration versus an efficient unit using 6-8 pounds creates dramatic operating cost differences over time.

Based on current Tampa salt prices averaging $6-8 per 40-pound bag, efficient systems cost approximately $180-240 annually to operate, while inefficient systems cost $400-600 yearly. Over a 10-year period, this difference totals $2,200-3,600 in unnecessary salt expenses — often exceeding the initial price difference between budget and high-efficiency systems.

5. The SoftPro Elite HE: Built for Tampa's Water

After evaluating Tampa's water hardness of 7.2 GPG and the presence of chlorine, sediment, and iron in the local supply, one system consistently rises to the top for Tampa homeowners: the SoftPro Elite HE Water Softener. This isn't a marketing preference — it's an engineering match between system capabilities and Tampa's documented water challenges.

Salt-Based Ion Exchange for True Softening

Salt-free systems do not actually remove hardness minerals — they only attempt to change crystal structure. At Tampa's 7.2 GPG level, salt-free systems cannot prevent scale formation, pipe narrowing, or appliance damage. Independent testing consistently shows that salt-free systems provide minimal benefit at hardness levels above 5-6 GPG.

The SoftPro Elite HE uses true cation exchange resin to physically replace calcium and magnesium ions with sodium ions. This process delivers genuinely soft water — typically reducing hardness from Tampa's 7.2 GPG to less than 1 GPG — the only method that stops scale formation and provides the soap, skin, and appliance benefits Tampa residents need.

Demand-Initiated Regeneration (DIR) Technology

At Tampa's 7.2 GPG hardness, ion exchange resin exhausts much faster than in soft-water cities. Traditional time-based regeneration systems guess when to regenerate — often regenerating too early (wasting salt and water) or too late (allowing hard water breakthrough).

The SoftPro Elite HE's DIR system monitors actual resin capacity and regenerates only when the resin bed is truly depleted. For Tampa households, this precision prevents the hard water breakthrough that damages appliances and negates softening benefits. DIR also prevents over-regeneration, reducing salt consumption by 20-30% compared to timer-based systems.

NSF/ANSI Standard 44 Certified Components

Certification under NSF/ANSI Standard 44 verifies that the resin, control valve, and materials meet strict performance and safety standards for drinking water treatment. For Tampa residents already managing chlorine, sediment, and iron in their water supply, knowing the softening process itself introduces no additional contaminants is essential.

Many budget softeners use uncertified resins and components that may leach plasticizers, metals, or other substances into treated water. The SoftPro Elite HE's certification provides Tampa homeowners with third-party verification of both performance and safety.

Multiple Grain Capacity Options

The SoftPro Elite HE is available in 32,000, 48,000, 64,000, and 80,000 grain capacities — allowing precise sizing for Tampa households based on actual usage patterns. Using the Tampa-specific sizing calculation:

• 1-2 people: 32,000 grains
• 3-4 people: 48,000 grains
• 5-6 people: 64,000 grains
• 7+ people or high-usage households: 80,000 grains

Proper capacity sizing ensures regeneration every 5-7 days — optimal for salt efficiency and consistent performance at Tampa's 7.2 GPG hardness level.

10-Year System Warranty

Tampa's 7.2 GPG hardness puts substantial daily stress on softener components — resin beds, control valves, and brine tanks work harder than installations in soft-water cities. The SoftPro Elite HE's 10-year warranty provides Tampa homeowners with protection during the years when hardness-related wear is most likely to cause component failures.

Budget softeners typically offer 1-3 year warranties that expire just as hardness-related problems begin appearing. For Tampa installations where the system operates under continuous high-mineral stress, extended warranty coverage is operational protection, not just peace of mind.

Self-Cleaning Sediment Pre-Filter

Tampa's occasional sediment issues require pre-filtration to protect the ion exchange resin from particulate damage and fouling. The SoftPro Elite HE includes an integrated sediment filter that backwashes automatically during each regeneration cycle, removing captured particles without manual cartridge replacement.

This feature addresses Tampa's specific challenge where both hardness minerals and sediment are present simultaneously. Standard cartridge-based pre-filters require monthly replacement in Tampa's conditions — the self-cleaning design eliminates this maintenance requirement while providing superior protection.

For Tampa households dealing with 7.2 GPG of water hardness and the compounding presence of chlorine, sediment, and iron, the SoftPro Elite HE is not a comfort upgrade — it is infrastructure protection for your home.

6. How to Size Your Softener for Tampa

Proper softener sizing for Tampa requires using the city's exact 7.2 GPG hardness level — not generic calculations or dealer estimates. Follow this step-by-step process to determine the correct grain capacity for your household:

Step 1: Count household members
Include all full-time residents, including children. Teenagers and adults use approximately the same daily water volume.

Step 2: Multiply by 75 gallons per person per day
This accounts for drinking, cooking, bathing, laundry, and dishwashing — the typical per-capita usage for Tampa households.

Step 3: Multiply household gallons × 7.2 GPG
This calculates your daily grain demand based on Tampa's specific hardness level.

Step 4: Multiply by 7 for weekly grain demand
Weekly calculations provide better sizing accuracy than daily estimates.

Step 5: Add 20% buffer for high-usage days
Accounts for guests, extra laundry loads, lawn irrigation backflow, and seasonal usage variations.

Step 6: Match to SoftPro Elite HE grain capacity
Choose the next size up if your calculation falls between standard capacities.

Example for 4-person Tampa household:
4 people × 75 gallons = 300 gallons daily
300 gallons × 7.2 GPG = 2,160 grains daily
2,160 × 7 days = 15,120 grains weekly
15,120 + 20% = 18,144 grains total demand
Recommendation: 48,000 grain SoftPro Elite HE

This sizing provides regeneration every 5-7 days, which maximizes salt efficiency and ensures consistent soft water delivery. Regenerating more frequently than every 5 days wastes salt and water; regenerating less frequently than every 7 days risks hard water breakthrough that defeats the system's purpose.

7. Installation in Tampa: What to Know

Florida state law does not require licensed plumber installation for water softeners, but Tampa's municipal code requires permits for modifications to the main water line in some circumstances. Most residential softener installations qualify as maintenance rather than modification, but verify with Tampa's building department if your installation involves moving the main shutoff valve or installing new supply lines.

Proper placement in Tampa homes follows standard configuration: after the main water shutoff valve and pressure reducing valve (if present), but before the water heater and all other appliances. Tampa's typical municipal water pressure ranges from 45-65 PSI, which is ideal for the SoftPro Elite HE's operating requirements of 20-80 PSI.

The regeneration process requires a drain line to discharge brine solution — approximately 25-35 gallons per regeneration cycle. Tampa installations typically connect to laundry sinks, utility sinks, or floor drains, with the drain line terminating at least 2 inches above the drain opening to prevent backflow. Septic system users should verify that additional sodium from regeneration discharge won't affect system balance, though the quantities are typically minimal.

Salt type selection is critical at Tampa's 7.2 GPG hardness level. Use evaporated salt pellets or high-quality solar crystals — avoid rock salt, which contains impurities that accumulate in the brine tank and can foul resin over time. Tampa's humidity requires storing salt in sealed containers to prevent clumping and bridging.

At 7.2 GPG hardness with a properly sized system, expect to check salt levels monthly and add 40-80 pounds every 6-8 weeks. The brine tank should never be more than two-thirds full of salt, and salt level should always remain 2-3 inches above the water line to prevent bridging.

8. Maintenance Schedule for Tampa Homeowners

Tampa's 7.2 GPG hardness and the presence of chlorine, sediment, and iron create specific maintenance requirements that differ from soft-water installations. Following this schedule prevents performance degradation and extends system life:

Monthly Tasks

Check salt level — consumption is moderate to high at 7.2 GPG. A properly sized system typically consumes 40-60 pounds monthly. Look for salt bridges — hard crusts that form above the water line and prevent proper brine formation.

Verify bypass valve position — ensure the system is in "service" position, not "bypass." Check during each salt inspection.

Test water hardness — use test strips to confirm post-softener water measures less than 1 GPG. Hardness above 1 GPG indicates resin exhaustion, improper regeneration, or system malfunction.

Quarterly Tasks (Every 3 Months)

Clean brine tank interior — remove any salt residue or sediment buildup. Tampa's iron content can cause orange staining in the brine tank that should be cleaned to prevent resin contamination.

Inspect pre-filter — the SoftPro Elite HE's self-cleaning sediment filter should show clear backwash during regeneration. Cloudy or discolored backwash may indicate excessive sediment loading.

Check for salt bridging — use a broom handle to gently probe salt level. Solid resistance indicates bridging that must be broken up manually.

Annual Tasks

Complete brine tank cleaning — empty tank completely, scrub interior surfaces, and inspect brine well for clogs or damage.

Resin bed performance evaluation — if post-softener hardness consistently exceeds 1 GPG despite proper salt levels and regeneration, resin may need cleaning or replacement.

Iron fouling assessment — Tampa's iron content can gradually foul resin, reducing capacity. Orange or brown resin beads indicate iron fouling requiring resin cleaner treatment.

Control valve inspection — verify proper regeneration timing and duration. DIR systems should regenerate based on actual usage, not arbitrary schedules.

5-Year Evaluation

Comprehensive system assessment — at Tampa's 7.2 GPG hardness level, resin beds typically require evaluation or replacement after 5-7 years of service. High hardness accelerates resin degradation compared to soft-water installations.

Tampa residents should establish baseline hardness readings before installation and retest quarterly to confirm continued performance. Gradual hardness increase over time indicates resin exhaustion that requires professional service.

9. Frequently Asked Questions for Tampa Residents

9. Is Tampa's water at 7.2 GPG dangerous to drink?

Tampa's 7.2 GPG hardness is not a health hazard — calcium and magnesium are essential minerals that many people take as supplements. The EPA does not regulate hardness as a health contaminant. However, 7.2 GPG creates significant property damage, appliance failures, and increased household expenses that make treatment economically beneficial rather than medically necessary.

10. Will a water softener remove chlorine, sediment, and iron from Tampa's water?

Water softeners remove calcium and magnesium (hardness minerals) only. The SoftPro Elite HE will handle Tampa's typical iron levels of 0.1-0.4 mg/L as a secondary benefit, and the included sediment pre-filter addresses particulate matter. However, chlorine requires separate activated carbon filtration for complete removal. Tampa homeowners wanting comprehensive treatment should consider pairing the SoftPro Elite HE with a carbon filter system.

11. How much salt will I use per month in Tampa at 7.2 GPG?

A properly sized SoftPro Elite HE serving a Tampa household at 7.2 GPG typically consumes 40-60 pounds of salt monthly. Exact consumption depends on water usage, regeneration efficiency, and household size. A 4-person Tampa household with a 48,000-grain system should expect approximately 50 pounds monthly, costing $6-10 depending on salt type and local pricing.

12. Does Tampa require a permit to install a water softener?

Tampa does not typically require permits for water softener installation when connecting to existing plumbing connections. However, installations requiring new water lines, drain connections, or electrical work may require permits. Contact Tampa's building department at (813) 274-3100 to verify requirements for your specific installation. Most residential installations qualify as maintenance rather than alteration.

13. Why does soft water feel slippery in the shower?

The "slippery" feeling is actually your skin's natural oils and moisture without calcium interference. Tampa's 7.2 GPG hard water contains calcium ions that bind to skin proteins and strip natural oils, creating the "tight" feeling most residents consider normal. Soft water allows soap to rinse completely clean and skin to maintain natural moisture — the slippery sensation disappears within 1-2 weeks as you adjust.

14. How quickly will I see results after installing a softener in Tampa?

Tampa homeowners typically notice immediate changes in soap lather and skin feel within 24 hours of installation. Scale buildup stops immediately, but existing deposits require 2-6 months to dissolve gradually. Appliance efficiency improvements become measurable within 30-60 days. Laundry softness and reduced spotting on dishes appear within the first week of operation.

15. Can the SoftPro Elite HE handle Tampa's water without a separate filter?

The SoftPro Elite HE will effectively soften Tampa's 7.2 GPG hardness and handle typical sediment and iron levels through its integrated pre-filter and ion exchange process. Chlorine removal requires additional carbon filtration if taste, odor, or plumbing protection is a concern. Most Tampa homeowners find the softener alone provides substantial improvement, with chlorine filtration as an optional upgrade based on personal preferences.

Final Verdict for Tampa

Tampa's hardness of 7.2 GPG demands professional-grade treatment — this isn't a "nice to have" upgrade but essential infrastructure protection for your home. The combination of hard water, chlorine, sediment, and iron creates compounding problems that worsen over time, costing Tampa homeowners over $1,300 annually in energy waste, soap consumption, and accelerated appliance replacement.

The SoftPro Elite HE rises above other options for Tampa installations because of three critical engineering matches: demand-initiated regeneration that prevents hard water breakthrough at 7.2 GPG consumption rates, integrated sediment pre-filtration that addresses Tampa's particulate issues, and grain capacity options that allow precise sizing for the city's specific hardness level rather than generic estimates.

For Tampa households, investing in proper water treatment is comparable to installing quality air conditioning — it's not optional given the environmental conditions. Check current SoftPro Elite HE pricing and available grain capacities for a Tampa household to see system configurations that match your specific usage patterns and home size.

Like the Hillsborough River that winds through downtown, Tampa's water carries the geological signature of central Florida — beautiful to behold, but requiring proper treatment to protect the homes and families it serves.

[Meta description: Tampa's 7.2 GPG hard water plus chlorine, sediment & iron damage homes daily. SoftPro Elite HE stops scale buildup, appliance damage & high soap costs for Tampa families.]